Summary: A piece of rare textile found in a Judean Desert cave offers the earliest evidence ever found of the use of scale insects to create precious red dyes.
From the blue and purple and scarlet yarns they made finely woven garments, for ministering in the Holy Place. They made the holy garments for Aaron, as the Lord had commanded Moses. – Exodus 39:1 (ESV)
Ancient Precious Red Dye
One of the ancient world’s most precious dyes has been identified from a 3,800-year-old woolen textile uncovered in a Judean Desert cave, announced the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) last month. The expensive dye, known in the Bible as Tola’at Hashani or “scarlet worm,” was used to color costly fabrics such as those used in the Jewish Tabernacle and for the garments of the Levitical priests.
The small textile, dating to the Middle Bronze Age, measures less than a square inch in size. This groundbreaking find was discovered eight years ago in the “Cave of Skulls” during Judean desert excavations conducted to save heritage finds from antiquities theft.
The research was a joint collaboration among the IAA, Bar-Ilan and Hebrew universities and was published in the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports.
Rarity of Oak Scale Insects
Dozens of textiles were found in the Cave of Skulls, but the small red fabric stood out because of its bright color, indicating it could be the precious scarlet dye.
“The color red has held significant historical symbolism and meaning throughout history and can be produced from various sources, including plants and animals,” the study states. “Some of the most luxurious red dyes were derived from various species of scale insects, particularly those of the Coccoidae superfamily.”
Using advanced analytical techniques, including High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), researchers were able to trace the origin of the dye and identify the specific species of scale insect.
“We can determine with high probability that in ancient times, the textile was dyed using a species of Kermes vermilio, which produces kermesic acid, imparting the distinctive red hue,” said Dr. Naʼama Sukenik, curator of the Organic Material Collection at the IAA.
The dye comes from the female scale insect, which lives as a parasite on the Kermes oak tree (Quercus coccifera).
The challenge of harvesting these insects contributed to the prestige associated with the bright scarlet color they produced. “Collecting Kermes was done in a very short window of time—one month out of the year, in the summer, after the female laid her eggs but before they hatched—when the amount of dye was greatest,” said Sukenik.
Kermes insects are difficult to find with their camouflage color and small size, less than a ¼ of an inch, plus, many insects need to be collected since each produces such a small amount of dye. These challenges contributed to the color’s rarity, making the beautiful red hue a highly prized dye during ancient times.
The Color “Scarlet Worm” in the Bible
“In the Bible, the dye extracted from oak scale insects is referred to as ‘scarlet worm,’” said Professor Zohar Amar of Bar-Ilan University in Ramat Gan. “Worm” was used as a general term for various insects and their developmental stages in ancient times.
The color “scarlet worm” is mentioned 25 times in the Bible, often alongside blue (Tekhelet) and purple (Argaman), which were considered the most precious and prestigious colors in the ancient world.
The book of Exodus records that tabernacle adornments, such as veils and curtains, as well as priestly clothing and other items for worship, were dyed with this color.
“You shall make the tabernacle with ten curtains of fine twined linen and blue and purple and scarlet yarns; you shall make them with cherubim skillfully worked into them… You shall make a screen for the entrance of the tent, of blue and purple and scarlet yarns… embroidered with needlework.” – Ex. 26:1,36
“And they shall make the ephod of gold, of blue and purple and scarlet yarns, and of fine twined linen, skillfully worked… On its hem you shall make pomegranates of blue and purple and scarlet yarns … with bells of gold between them.” – Ex. 28:6,33
From the blue and purple and scarlet yarns they made finely woven garments, for ministering in the Holy Place. They made the holy garments for Aaron, as the Lord had commanded Moses. – Ex. 39:1
The book of 2 Samuel speaks of the color in reference to royalty.
“Daughters of Israel, weep for [King] Saul, who clothed you in scarlet and finery, who adorned your garments with ornaments of gold.” – 2 Sam. 1:24
The prophet Isaiah describes Israel’s sins as being scarlet and crimson.
Though your sins are like scarlet, they shall be as white as snow; though they are red like crimson, they shall become like wool. – Isa. 1:18
In the New Testament, before being crucified, Jesus was mockingly dressed in a scarlet robe. In Greek, the word for scarlet is kokkinos, meaning crimson dyed with Kermes, the female coccus of the Kermes oak tree.
And they stripped him and put a scarlet robe on him, and twisting together a crown of thorns, they put it on his head and put a reed in his right hand. And kneeling before him, they mocked him, saying, “Hail, King of the Jews!” – Matt. 27:27-29
Historical Sources
Ancient trade documents such as the cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia even speak about the red dye from Kermes. Despite the wealth of written historical evidence about the widespread use in the ancient world of dyeing with scale insects, very few textiles, which predate the Roman period, have been found dyed with this color, said the IAA. This red textile is the earliest evidence of actual fabric dyed with Kermes.
Professor Zohar Amar of Bar-Ilan University noted the advanced zoological awareness demonstrated in ancient texts: “The Biblical association of this color with a living creature demonstrates impressive zoological knowledge, considering that female scale insects lack legs and wings, to the extent that some Greek and Roman naturalists even mistook them for plant granules.”
Extensive Trade Networks
Interestingly, the Kermes vermilio tree species is not native to Israel but is common in other Mediterranean regions, suggesting the existence of extensive trade networks during the Middle Bronze Age. Professor David Lutz of Bar-Ilan University explained the species “is common in the central and eastern Mediterranean region, including Spain, France, and other areas, but is not found in the Land of Israel.”
“The source of dyestuffs is directly linked to economic and social capabilities of ancient societies and is commonly used as an important indicator in textile research to investigate the role of textile dyeing and technological achievements, fashion, social and economic status, agriculture, and trade,” according to the study.
The Cave of Skulls
As a perishable organic material subject to rapid decomposition, textiles are rare in the archaeological record, according to the researchers. The Judean Desert cliff caves, situated west of the Dead Sea, provided the necessary dry conditions for preservation. The location of the textile may also reveal that a group of refugees sought shelter in these remote sites.
“Although it is difficult to know how this textile arrived in this desert cave, it is significant evidence of ancient knowledge in dyeing wool fibers using scale insects to achieve the red color as early as the Middle Bronze Age – about 3,800 years ago,” said Dr. Uri Davidovich, an excavation director on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
The cave in Nahal Ze’elim, where the textile was found, is called the “Cave of Skulls” or “Cave 32” and was first excavated in 1960 and again in 2016. “The caves in the cliffs generally represent temporary episodes of occupation, regarded by many as related to the flight of groups of refugees that sought shelter in these remote and hardly accessible caves,” according to the study.
Excavations in this cave yielded numerous finds including over 430 textiles which dated to different time periods from approximately 4,500 BC to the time of the Bar-Kokhba Revolt in the 2nd century AD. Other organic items were found in the Cave of Skulls including ropes, yarns, basketry, leather and wood artifacts, “all remarkably preserved for millennia due to the dry and relatively stable microenvironmental conditions typical of the Judean Desert caves,” the study explained.
Conclusion
The discovery of red dye made from the Kermes scarlet worm provides tangible evidence of a sophisticated textile dyeing industry in the ancient world, bridging the gap between written sources and archaeological findings. “The rare textile is a testament to broad international commercial networks functioning already at this time and indicates the presence of an elite society,” said Sukenik.
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TOP PHOTO: A fragment of the 3,800-year-old textile, dyed with the Kermes vermilio. (credit: Dafna Gazit, IAA)
